This description of the corrosion
research visit to Mexico is a detailed account of the 2 weeks the PI's spent in Mexico in
1996 and the research plans that were formulated by the collaborating researchers. It is
an expanded and hyperlinked version of the Final Report submitted to the NSF. The topics
discussed do not follow the same order as the NSF report.
Principal Investigators:
Ann C. Van Orden (dec.): Department of Mechanical Engineering
Desmond C. Cook:
Department of Physics,
Old
Dominion University.
Collaborators and Partner Organizations:
Universidad Autónoma de Campeche.
The University of Campeche is located in Campeche, México on the west coast of the
Yucatan Peninsula. The university sponsors our collaborating research center, Programa de
Corrosión del Golfo de México (PCGM) under the leadership of the Director and research
collaborator, Professor Juan J. Carpio. PCGM works specifically with corrosion related
problems in concrete and structural steels in regions of the Gulf of México from Campeche
south to Veracruz (600 km). A total of 11 atmospheric exposure sites are maintained
through PCGM between Campeche and Veracruz.
CINVESTAV-IPN Mérida
The Corrosion Research Group in the Department of Applied Physics at Centro de
Investigacion y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politecnico Nacional,, Unidad Mérida,
(CINVESTAV-IPN, Mérida) is in Mérida, México on the north-west corner of the Yucatan
Peninsula. It is located 30 km inland from the Gulf of México and 150 km north-east of
Campeche.The Corrosion Research Group is directed by our collaborators Dr. Luis Maldonado
and Dra. Lucian Veleva. CINVESTAV-IPN, Mérida is involved in research on a wide range of
corrosion problems in México including the performance of structural and stainless steels
in developing regions along the Caribbean Sea. It maintains 5 atmospheric exposure sites
between Mérida and to the east from Cancun to Mahahual along the Caribbean coastline.
Other
Collaborators:
Other collaborators, listed below, include the primary research
collaborators at the two partner organizations, research collaborators at two other
Mexican universities and advisory collaborators from various steel companies in the United
States and México. Other contacts include the many research and maintenance personnel at
the 16 exposure sites involved with the project. They are listed in Table X.
Collaborators:
Dr. Juan J. Carpio: Director: Programa de Corrosión del Golfo de México, Universidad Autónoma de Campeche, Campeche, México.
Dr. Luis Maldonado: CINVESTAV-IPN, Unidad Mérida, Mérida, México.
Dra. Lucien Veleva: CINVESTAV-IPN, Unidad Mérida, Mérida, México.
Dr. Lorenzo Martinez: Professor of Physics, and Science Advisor to the President of México, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, (UNAM), México City.
Dr. Hernani Yee-Madeira: Professor of Physics and Mathematics, Instituto Polytecnico Nacional de México, (IPN), México City.
Dr. Herbert E. Townsend: Senior Research Consultant, Bethlehem Steel Corporation, Bethlehem, PA.
Mr. Barry W. Parks, Jr.: Senior Metallurgist, Allegheny Ludlum Corporation, Pittsburgh, PA.
Dr. Javier Avila: Quality Control Manager, Mexinox, San Luis Potosi, México.
Dr. Luis Arias Communications Manager, Altos Hornos de México, Monoclova, Coahuila, Mexico.
Major Research and Education Activities.
Background: The plan to develop an International Corrosion Research Program which was interdisciplinary in structure, was formulated by the Principal Investigators in 1996. It was a consequence of the need to improve the understanding of corrosion processes at the microscopic level, through the introduction of modern, non-destructive, spectroscopy based analytical techniques, the results of which could be incorporated with those of the more traditional fields of corrosion monitoring used by industry as well as civil and structural engineers. The interdisciplinary nature of the Program would bring together scientists and engineers, with varying research backgrounds and skills, from institutes having the wide range of research facilities needed to perform state-of-the-art corrosion research. The decision to initiate the research program with collaborators from México, was made for the reasons summarized below.
At two Latin American corrosion congresses in 1996, it was reported that the region surrounding the Gulf of México has one of the harshest, most corrosive environments in the entire world. Recently, it had been the location of significant economic development with the building of structures, ranging from industrial sites such as refineries and petrochemical processing plants, to homes and schools, and infrastructures including roads and bridges. The lifetime of these structures was expected to be severely limited due to atmospheric corrosion in the tropical and industrially polluted environments. The request for the initiation of a corrosion research program to study the effects of the adverse environmental conditions on steel and concrete structures around the Gulf of México, was made by the Méxican government through our research collaborator Dr. Lorenzo Martinez, Professor of Physics, and Science Advisor to the President of México, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), México City. Dr. Martinez was also concerned about the lack of research expertise and corrosion training in México and discussed this issue with the Principal Investigators. More recently, the region along the Caribbean coastline from Cancun to Belize has also been identified as highly corrosive due mainly to the year-long tropical marine environment. This region is undergoing rapid residential development due to increased tourism in México and it has been recommended by our collaborators in Mérida that corrosion performance data is needed on new and existing construction materials that could be used along the Caribbean coast. Already severe corrosion problems in many of the Cancun hotels have lead to very costly repairs and in several cases complete reconstruction. No research data or guidelines exist to help select the most suitable materials.
The Principal Investigators saw the requests of the two Méxican groups as the opportunity to begin the formation of the International Corrosion Research Program to investigate serious corrosion problems that had already been identified in México. It would also provide the arena in which to expose US produced structural steels to environments far more adverse than those observed at any of the standard ASTM exposure sites in the US. The formation of the US-Méxican collaboration and the finalization of specifications of the research and training program, comprise the goals and activities of the NSF funded Planning Visit for Corrosion Research in Mexico, as outlined below.
Two well established corrosion research groups exist in México in the area of the Yucatan Peninsula. Dr. Juan J. Carpio is Director of Programa de Corrosión del Golfo de México, (PCGM), at the Universidad Autónoma de Campeche, Campeche, and Dr. Luis Maldonado is Director of the Corrosion Research Group at Centro de Investigacion y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN, (CINVESTAV-IPN), Unidad Mérida, Mérida. A detailed map of the Yucatan Peninsula and the location of Campeche and Mérida is shown in Figure 1. Further details of the two collaborating corrosion groups are included in the next section, Research Findings. Both programs showed strong interest in collaborating with the Principal Investigators to initiate the new corrosion research program to investigate problems in their particular region and to train new corrosion researchers. The NSF funded Research Planning Visit having the following major goals, was proposed.
Formulate the nature of the collaborative research and finalize research plans between PCGM, CINVESTAV-IPN and ODU, which are of mutual interest and would benefit México and the United States scientifically and commercially.
Review analytical facilities available in México to the International Corrosion Research Program.
Visit and evaluate exposure sites and management personnel under the control of the two Méxican corrosion groups. Select sites which can be used to significantly improve scientific knowledge of the corrosion mechanism.
Identify industrial collaborators for the research program.
Discuss short and long term visits to the Méxican and US research facilities laboratories by the researchers and graduate students for the purpose of specialized instruction, instrument training and corrosion analysis.
Major Activities: The two Principal Investigators traveled to México for 11 days, visiting 8 cities around the Gulf of México and México City. The
travel itinerary is given in Table 1. The main research activities included the PI’s visiting the research facilities of the two main collaborating corrosion groups, PCGM at Campeche and CINVESTAV-IPN at Mérida, to inspect instrumentation and complete research plans and discussions with the directors. At Campeche and Mérida, extensive research planning discussions were held in order to ascertain the main missions the two corrosion groups and their collaboration with Old Dominion University in the International Corrosion Research Program. The PI’s, accompanied by Dr. Carpio, inspected 13 of the 19 atmospheric exposure sites operated by PCGM and CINVESTAV-IPN and which are available for atmospheric exposure of steel and other metal coupons. Further discussions were also held to document the details of the initial research and training which would be undertaken by the collaborating groups. One goal was for the PI’s to return to the US with enough information to begin writing a joint NSF-CONACyT proposal with Dr. Carpio and Dr. Maldonado.The Principal Investigators also visited the research facilities of two other collaborators with supporting analytical instrumentation, Dr. Lorenzo Martinez at Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), México City, and Dr. Hernani Yee-Madeira at Instituto Polytecnico Nacional de México, (IPN), México City. Dr. Martinez and Dr. Yee-Madeira had indicated interest in becoming involved in our International Corrosion Research Program by analyzing some of our exposed samples and improving the corrosion training of their graduate students. Discussions were held with both researchers so ascertain their involvement in our research plans.
The main education activities undertaken in the visit to México included the presentation of four colloquia by the PI’s to corrosion researchers and students in Campeche, Mérida, Veracruz and México City (UNAM). The colloquia discussed the ongoing corrosion research at Old Dominion University using non-destructive spectroscopic techniques, as well as the general goals of the collaborating Méxican and US groups in the International Corrosion Research Program. The PI’s also held discussions with groups of graduate students at six institutes visited in order to determine their present level of education, and their interest in corrosion research and traveling to the different research facilities, including ODU, for their graduate training.
In the period following the Research Planning Visit to México, preliminary research has begun through exposure and spectroscopic analysis of carbon steel coupons in Campeche. This collaboration has involved two graduate students in Campeche and two at Old Dominion University. More details on student participation will be presented in the section on Research Training. A total of 9 papers have been presented at professional meetings and 3 publications, one technical report and one dissertation have been written to disseminate findings pertaining to this project.
Table 1: Travel Itinerary: Planning Visit for Corrosion Research in México
Date
Travel Activity
Activity
Organization
Exp. Site
Destination
18 Oct 96 Fly: Norfolk, Va. - M.C. México City 19 Oct 96 Fly: México City - Campeche Dr. Carpio: Lab Tour, Research discussions, Site tour. PCGM. CP1 Campeche 20 Oct 96 Colloquium, Research discussions, Site tour. PCGM. CP2 CP3
Campeche 21 Oct 96 Bus: Campeche - Mérida. Car: Mérida - Progreso.
Dr. Maldonado: Research discussions, Colloquium, Site tour. CINVESTAV-IPN. ME1 PG1
Mérida 22 Oct 96 Fly: Mérida - Veracruz Colloquium, Site tour. Site tour.
Instituto Tecnologico de Veracruz. Instituto de Ingenieria de la Universidad Veracruzana
VC1 VC2
Veracruz 23 Oct 96 Drive: Veracruz - Orizaba - Coatzcoalcos Lab tour, Site tour. Instituto Tecnologico de Orizaba. OZ1 Coatzcoalcos 24 Oct 96 Drive: Minatitlan
Fly: Minatitlan - México City
Site tour.
PEMEX Plant tour, Research discussions, Site tour.
Site tour.
Centro de Estudios Tecnologicos, Industriales y de Servicios. PEMEX, Pajaritos.
Instituto Tecnologico de Minatitlan.
CZ1
CZ2
MT1
Minatitlan
25 Oct 96 Drive: IPN and UNAM Labs Dr. Yee-Madeira: Lab tour, Research discussions. Dr. Martinez: Colloquium, Lab tour, Site tour, Research discussions.
IPN Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, (UNAM).
Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana.
MC1
MC2
México City 26 Oct 96 Bus: Cuernavaca, UNAM Lab Dr. Martinez: Research discussions. México City 27 Oct 96 Tour: México City México City 28 Oct 96 Fly: M.C. - Norfolk, Va. Norfolk, Va.
The Planning Visit for Corrosion Research in México has resulted in the PI’s collecting information and data concerning the serious corrosion problems in México, the institutes and groups involved in corrosion research, the effect of the environment, in the form of daily weather conditions and industrial pollutants, on the corrosion of buildings and bridges, and how the Méxican economy and lack of high quality steels, severely limits the longevity of old and new structures. Much of the data is qualitative, in the form of written notes from research discussions with our collaborators and their associated colleagues, and photographs from each region we visited. There is also some quantitative data which we collected during and following the visit in order to begin to scientifically evaluate and disseminate the corrosion problems in México and to determine the corrosivity index of each exposure site available for our planned research. The major findings including a detailed description of our observations, findings (including photographs), and of our entire Méxican collaboration are summarized in this section.
Collaborating Partner Organizations: The Principal Investigators at Old Dominion University are collaborating with two corrosion research facilities located on the Yucatan Peninsula. Between them they operate 16 exposure sites in regions around the Gulf of México.
Table 2, between Campeche and Veracruz, some 600 km south-west along the gulf coast. It was founded by another collaborator Dr. Lorenzo Martinez (now at UNAM), in 1992 to develop an understanding of the relationship between the environmental conditions in the Gulf of México and the atmospheric corrosion those conditions cause. PCGM works specifically with corrosion related problems in reinforced concrete and structural steels in the developing regions of the Gulf of México, and has three senior researchers and three graduate students with whom we have completed a preliminary study of the corrosion of carbon steels in marine and near marine environments at Campeche. The graduate students working at PCGM are registered at UNAM in México City since Universidad Autónoma de Campeche does not as yet have the appropriate graduate program in Materials Science. The research facilities at PCGM include modern electrochemical instrumentation and equipment for performing basic corrosion measurements on exposed coupons. The program does lack standard spectroscopic instrumentation and researchers travel to UNAM in México City for microscopy and morphology investigations.Programa de Corrosión del Golfo de México, (PCGM), at the Universidad Autónoma de Campeche, Campeche, is under the leadership of the Director and research collaborator, Professor Juan J. Carpio. The PCGM is located on the central west coast of the Yucatan Peninsula and has access to 11 atmospheric exposure sites, shown in Figure 1 and listed in
CINVESTAV-IPN Mérida. The Corrosion Research Group in the Department of Applied Physics at Centro de Investigacion y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politecnico Nacional, Unidad Mérida, (CINVESTAV-IPN, Mérida) is in Mérida, México on the north-west corner of the Yucatan Peninsula. It is located 30 km inland from the Gulf of México and 150 km north-east of Campeche. The Corrosion Research Group is directed by our collaborators Dr. Luis Maldonado and Dra. Lucian Veleva. CINVESTAV-IPN, Mérida is involved in research on a wide range of corrosion problems in México including the performance of structural and stainless steels in developing regions along the Caribbean Sea. It maintains 5 atmospheric exposure sites between Mérida and to the east from Cancun to Mahahual along the Caribbean coastline. Graduate students working at CINVESTAV-IPN are enrolled locally at the University of Mayab or at UNAM in México City. This corrosion group is very well equipped for corrosion and basic scientific research and has an outstanding international reputation. Through the University of Mayab, they are organizing the ASTM/NACE International Symposium on Marine Corrosion in Tropical Environments, in Orlando Florida in November 2000. The group recently developed a new time-of-wetness sensor for use on steel coupons at the exposure sites. Not unexpectedly, the group does lack the Mössbauer and Raman spectroscopy instrumentation used at by the PI’s at ODU.
Other Research Collaborators: Two researchers from México City expressed interest in collaborating with the PI’s from the aspect of instrumental analysis and student training in corrosion research. We visited their laboratories and discussed with them our research program and their interaction with it.
UNAM, Mexico City. Dr. Lorenzo Martinez is Professor of Physics, and Science Advisor to the President of México, at Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, (UNAM), México City. UNAM is México’s largest (4 sq. km) and most prestigious university, with an enrolment of over 2 million students. The Physics, Chemistry and Engineering departments contain the most modern scientific equipment including some basic corrosion research facilities. Dr. Martinez, and other faculty at UNAM have indicated their willingness for the PI’s and their collaborators to use their instrumentation and to involve their students in our planned corrosion research.
IPN, Mexico City. Dr. Hernani Yee-Madeira is Professor of Physics and Mathematics at Instituto Polytecnico Nacional de México, (IPN), México City. Dr. Yee-Madeira operates similar Mössbauer instrumentation to Dr. Cook at ODU, and this is seen as an important extension to the research facilities at ODU due mainly to the large number of samples to be analyzed by the International Corrosion Research Group. Dr. Yee-Madeira is interested in extending his expertise into the area of corrosion research and to have IPN graduate students participate in the collaborative research which would offer them formal training at Old Dominion University.
The visits to the four research facilities in México have fulfilled several of the goals of the Research Planning Visit, allowing final selection of the Méxican collaborators and the specialized interactions they will have with the PI’s, and their contributions to the International Corrosion Research Program. The PI’s main collaboration and overall research plans will be undertaken with the directors of PCGM and CINVESTAV-IPN. Collaborators at UNAM and IPN in Mexico City will provide additional instrumentation and research expertise as well as very high quality graduate students who can be trained as corrosion scientists and engineers, able to provide the backbone for a strong future corrosion research community both for México and internationally. Additionally graduate students from Old Dominion University will reciprocate to undertake some of their research activities at UNAM and IPN, as well as in Campeche and Mérida.
Introduction: A total of 19 operating exposure sites were made available to the PI’s for exposing steel and other metallic coupons to the atmosphere. PCGM has 11 sites, CINVESTAV-IPN has 5 sites, 2 sites were available in México City and one additional site was available in San Luis Potosi through one of our industrial collaborators and steel producer, MEXINOX. The PI’s visited 12 of the sites between Progreso and México City. Figure 1 shows a map of the Yucatan Peninsula and the cities at which the exposure sites operated by PCGM and CINVESTAV-IPN are located. The value in parenthesis at each city indicates the number of exposure sites in that region. The map links to information and photographs for each city and exposure site. Table 2 provides general details on all 19 exposure sites. Atmospheric data and corrosivity classifications for some of the sites are presented later in Tables 3 and 4.
The PI’s, accompanied by Dr. Carpio, inspected 12 of the 19 atmospheric exposure sites operated by PCGM and CINVESTAV-IPN and which are available for atmospheric exposure of steel and other metal coupons. Records were kept of each site location, atmospheric monitoring instrumentation, security, site personnel qualifications, accessibility, availability, maintenance policies and typical atmospheric conditions for the area. Additionally, maps were collected showing the weather conditions, rainfall, temperature, humidity, wind speed and direction for all of México, in order to begin corrosivity calculations for the sites available for our research.
Although the number of exposure sites seems excessive for the region around the Gulf of México, especially when several sites are located in the same city, it is evident from the atmospheric data and environmental location of the sites, that our Méxican collaborators had carefully selected where each site was to be originally constructed. In some cases the site is to monitor corrosion only due to the natural atmospheric conditions of the region whereas others, often in the same region, are located close to industrial facilities in order to monitor the effects of environmental pollution. Without exception no two sites visited are exposed to the same environmental conditions.
Most of the sites are located at universities or colleges (see Table 2)and have faculty who have committed to maintain them and who are interested in basic corrosion research and corrosion of structures in their region of México. Most sites are located on the roofs or in securely fenced regions on the grounds of the local institute. As an example, Figure 2 shows
site MT1 located on the grounds of Instituto Tecnologico de Minatitlan and adjacent to, and downwind from, the PEMEX Pajaritos petrochemical refinery (location of site CZ2), seen in the background. This is a typical ground site, with secure fencing, atmospheric monitoring instrumentation and plenty of room for coupon exposure racks.It is concluded, based on security, site maintenance, monitoring instrumentation and competent site personnel, that the 12 sites visited as well as the other 7 sites listed in Table 2, are suitable for use by the International Corrosion Research Program.
Table 2: Exposure sites available for corrosion research in México and United States.
Site # |
Site Code |
City |
Location |
Location |
Distance from Gulf (m) |
1 |
CP1 |
Campeche | PCGM |
Program de Corrosion del Golfo de Mexico | 300 |
2 |
CP2 |
Campeche | SMNC |
National Meteorlogical Station | 4000 |
3 |
CP3 |
Campeche | CRIP |
Centro Regional de Investigacion Pesquera | 4 |
4 |
ME1 |
Merida | CINVESTAV |
CINVESTAV-IPN, Merida | 50 km |
5 |
PG1 |
Progreso | ROTM |
Residencia de Operaciones de Transportacion Maritima | 50 |
6 |
CC1 |
Cd. Del Carmen | SMND |
National Meteorlogical Station | 100 |
7 |
CZ1 |
Coatzacoalcos | CETIS |
Centro de Estudios Tecnologicos, Industriales y de Servicios | 800 |
8 |
CZ2 |
Coatzacoalcos | PEMEX1 |
Parajetos | 4000 |
9 |
MT1 |
Minatitlan | ITM |
Instituto Tecnologico de Minatitlan | 6000 |
10 |
OZ1 |
Orizaba | ITO |
Instituto Technologico de Orizaba (5747' above sea level) | Inland 100 km |
11 |
VC1 |
Veracruz | ITV |
Instituto Tecnologico de Veracruz | 1000 |
12 |
VC2 |
Veracruz | IIV |
Instituto de Ingenieria de la Universidad Veracruzana | 700 |
13 |
OIL1 |
Gulf of Mexico | PEMEX2 |
Oil Rig 300 km off Cd. Del Carmen | Offshore 300 km |
14 |
PM1 |
Puerto Morelos | PM1 |
Puerto Morelos | 25 |
15 |
PM2 |
Puerto Morelos | PM1 |
Puerto Morelos | 1000 |
16 |
MH1 |
Mahahual | MH1 |
Mahahual | 25 |
17 |
MC1 |
México City | UNAM |
Universidad Nacional Autonoma de México | Inland 300 km |
18 |
MC2 |
México City | UAM |
Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana (Atzcapotzalco) | Inland 300 km |
19 |
LP1 |
San Luis Potosi | UASLP |
Universidad Autonoma San Luis Potosi (Mexinox) | Inland 300 km |
20 |
KB25 |
Kure Beach, NC | LCCT |
LaQue Center for Corrosion Technology, NC | 25 (Atlantic) |
21 |
KB250 |
Kure Beach, NC | LCCT |
LaQue Center for Corrosion Technology, NC | 250 (Atlantic) |
22 |
BSC1 |
Bethlehem, Pa | BSC1 |
Bethlehem Steel Corporation, Pa. | Inland 300 km (Atlantic) |
23 |
SB1 |
Saylorsburg, Pa | BSC2 |
Bethlehem Steel Corporation, Pa. | Inland 300 km (Atlantic) |
The PI’s have compiled exposure site data in the form of two databases which are shown in Tables 3 and 4. Table 3 lists the weather conditions in each of the regions of the sites. It should be noted that mean weather conditions in México and the US are very different with the former having mean daily temperatures about 10-15 degrees higher, larger relative humidity for longer times, higher rainfall and solar radiation. Additionally, regions around the Gulf of México have higher chloride concentrations and since industrial emission controls are not as regulated as in the US, very high SOx concentrations are often measured. Whereas it is very difficult to generalize and compare weather conditions in two countries as large as México and the US, the hot, tropical environments of the Gulf of México result in generally higher corrosion rates and exposure conditions not observed in the US. México presents itself as a location of unique exposure and corrosion conditions. Table 4 lists our published data on corrosion classifications of several of the exposure cites compared to three well known exposure sites in the US. For readers not familiar with the corrosion classifications of the International Standards Organization, (ISO), a full description is given on our Corrosion Home Page. The list of exact URL's is given under Table 4. As presented in detail below, based on corrosion aggressivity of the environment and/or proximity to recent and future economic development in the area, 7 specific exposure sites have been selected for use in the first research project planned by the collaborating researchers involved in this NSF project.
Table 3: Weather conditions at the Méxican exposure sites.
Site # |
Site Code |
City |
Annual Precipitation (mm/yr.) |
Mean Annual Temp. (C) |
Annual Relative Humidity (%) |
Annual Solar Radiation (hr.) |
Climate |
Wind Energy (Watts/m2) |
Average Wind Intensity (m/s) |
Prevailing Wind Direction |
1 |
CP1 |
Campeche | ||||||||
2 |
CP2 |
Campeche | 800-1200 |
>26 |
>75 |
2600 |
Sub-Humid/Hot |
40-80 |
6.5 |
SE |
3 |
CP3 |
Campeche | ||||||||
4 |
ME1 |
Merida | 800-1200 |
>26 |
>75 |
3000 |
SubHumid/Hot |
0-10 |
5.0 |
SE |
5 |
PG1 |
Progreso | 125-400 |
22-26 |
65-75 |
2600 |
Arid/Hot |
20-40 |
NE |
|
6 |
DC1 |
Cd. Del Carmen | 1500-2000 |
>26 |
>75 |
2400 |
SubHumid/Hot |
40-60 |
||
7 |
CZ1 |
Coatzacoalcos | ||||||||
8 |
CZ2 |
Coatzacoalcos | 2000-2500 |
22-26 |
>75 |
2200 |
Humid/Hot |
80-160 |
9.0 |
N |
9 |
MT1 |
Minatitlan | ||||||||
10 |
OZ1 |
Orizaba | 800-1200 |
12-18 |
65-75 |
<1800 |
Humid/Warm |
0-10 |
<3.0 |
E |
11 |
VC1 |
Veracruz | 1500-2000 |
26 |
>75 |
2400 |
SubHumid/Hot |
>160 |
11.0 |
NE |
12 |
VC2 |
Veracruz | ||||||||
13 |
OIL1 |
Gulf of Mexico | ||||||||
14 |
PM1 |
Puerto Morelos | 1500-2000 |
>26 |
>75 |
3000 |
Semi-Humid/Hot |
10-20 |
5.9 |
SE |
15 |
PM2 |
Puerto Morelos | ||||||||
16 |
MH1 |
Mahahual | 1200-1500 |
>26 |
>75 |
3000 |
Semi-Humid/Hot |
0-10 |
5.0 |
SE |
17 |
MC1 |
México City | 400-600 |
12-18 |
55-60 |
2400 |
Semi-Arid/Warm |
0-10 |
4.0 |
All |
18 |
MC2 |
México City | ||||||||
19 |
LP1 |
San Luis Potosi | 125-400 |
12-18 |
65-70 |
2200 |
Semi-Arid/Warm |
10-20 |
5.9 |
E |
20 |
KB25 |
Kure Beach, NC | 18 |
79 |
||||||
21 |
KB250 |
Kure Beach, NC | ||||||||
22 |
BSC1 |
Bethlehem, Pa | ||||||||
23 |
SB1 |
Saylorsburg, Pa |
Table 4. Environmental conditions and corrosion classifications at some Méxican and US exposure sites.
Ref: Cook et al., Hyperfine Interactions 113, (1998) p. 319.
Site |
Distance from Gulf /Atlantic (m) |
Mean Temp. (C) |
Relative Humidity (%) |
Time of Wetness (hr/mth) |
Pollutants (mg/m2 /day) |
Corrosion Rates (µm/yr) |
Corrosion Class |
||
Cl- |
SO2 |
Fe |
Zn |
||||||
| CP2: Campeche, Mx | 4000 |
26 |
72 |
370 T4 |
45 S1 |
4 P0 |
15 |
- |
C2 |
| CP3: Campeche, Mx | 4 |
26 |
72 |
450 T5 |
170 S2 |
4 P0 |
78 |
5 |
C4 |
| VC1: Veracruz Mx | 1000 |
25 |
80 |
420 T4 |
326 S3 |
20 P1 |
178 |
7 |
C5 |
| VC2: Veracruz, Mx | 700 |
25 |
80 |
480 T5 |
520 S3 |
20 P1 |
207 |
9 |
>C5 |
CZ2: Coatzacoalcos, Mx |
4000 |
26 |
75 |
500 T5 |
90 S2 |
33 P1 |
300 |
- |
>C5 |
| KB25: Kure Beach, NC | 25 |
18 |
79 |
380 T4 |
311 S3 |
12 P1 |
164 |
5 |
C5 |
| KB250: Kure Beach, NC | 250 |
18 |
79 |
380 T4 |
110 S2 |
12 P1 |
46 |
2 |
C3 |
| BSC1: Bethlehem, PA | Inland 300 km |
- |
- |
- |
5 S0 |
26 P1 |
76 |
2 |
C4 |
Code: ISO Wetness Classes: T1-T5 Ref: ISO#BBBBBBB
ISO Sulfur Dioxide Classes: P0-P3
ISO Chloride Classes: S0-S3
ISO Corrosion Classes: C1-C5
CAMPECHE: Sites CP1, CP2, CP3.
Campeche is a coastal city of population 130,000, located on the central west coast of the Yucatan Peninsula. It was founded in 1540, and was frequently pillaged by buccaneers in the 17th century. Part of the city is still surrounded by the original stone walls and fort to protect against Blackbeard's visits. The region is rural with fishing and sugarcane supporting the economy. One of our partner organizations, Programa de Corrosión del Golfo de México, (PCGM), under the leadership of the Director and research collaborator, Professor Juan J. Carpio is located here at the Universidad Autónoma de Campeche. The three exposure sites in Campeche, CP1, CP2, CP3, are located at PCGM, the National Meterological Station (SMN) and at the Regional Fisheries Department (CRIP), respectively. Each site is a different distance from the shoreline of the Gulf. SMN is a fully manned and instrumented site. It is equipped to measure all weather and environmental parameters, which are assumed common for each of the three sites, except for chloride (Cl-), and sulfur dioxide (SOx), concentrations which are measured separately at each site. Site CP1 is located on the roof of CPGM 300 m from the shoreline. Site CP2 is located on the ground at SMN, 4000 m from the shoreline and site CP3 is located on the ground at CRIP just 4 m from the shoreline. Sites CP1 and CP2 are very similar in exposure conditions and are classified as rural/marine. On the other hand site CP3 is severe marine, having four times the chloride concentration of sites CP1 and CP2, due to its close proximity to the Gulf shoreline. Campeche is a rural city of limited industrial development, resulting in very low SOx concentrations for the region. Therefore sites CP2 and CP3 can be used to compare the effects of different chloride concentrations on corrosion, which is important for bridges and buildings located in the marine environment or regions of the US which use road de-icing salts. They compare closely with the two standard US exposure sites at Kure Beach, NC, KB25 and KB250 which are located 25 m and 250 m from the Atlantic Ocean shoreline in a region of low SOx concentration, refer Table 4.
MÉRIDA-PROGRESO: Sites ME1, PG1.
Mérida is the capital of the state of
Yucatan and is located on the north-west corner of the Yucatan Peninsula, about 50 km
inland from the Gulf of México and 150 km north-east of Campeche. It was founded in 1542
on the site of the ruined Mayan city of Tiho. The city, with a population of 560,000, is
the commercial center of the peninsula and retains a distinctive Mayan atmosphere. A
university town, with both the University of Yucatán, founded in 1624, and the Regional
Technological Institute of Mérida, the city has a lively cultural atmosphere. Closeby are
the Mayan ruins of Dzibilchaltum and Chichen Itza
which are undergoing corrosion believed to be partly microbial in nature. Merida is the
location of one of our partner organizations CINVESTAV-IPN, which
maintains the exposure sites at Merida and Progreso as well as along the Caribbean
coastline. Site ME1 is located on the roof of the CINVESTAV-IPN research
facilities. It is a rural environment with low chloride and SOx
concentrations and has weather conditions which in general are similar to those in
Campeche, refer Table
3.
Progreso
is a large shipping port located on the northern coast of the Yucatan Peninsular 50 km
north of Merida. Site PG1 is located on the roof of the
Maritime Transportation building adjacent to the beach in Progreso. The severe marine
environment of Progreso is unique because, in addition to high chloride concentration,
Progreso has very low rainfall of between 125-400 mm/yr, about 25% of that received in
Mérida and Campeche. This results in a low number of annual wet-dry cycles, a condition
which is believed to be very detrimental for the development of protective oxide layers on
weathering steels which are used for bridges, power poles and guiderails in the US.
Progreso therefore offers a unique marine environment, not available in the US, in which
to expose the new US developed high strength weathering steels.
VERACRUZ: Sites VC1, VC2.
Veracruz is located on the south-west coast of the Gulf of Mexico and was first settled in 1519 by the Spanish who later abandoned the area. The massive Castillo de San Juan de Ulúa, a fortress begun by the Spanish in 1528 to guard the harbor from buccaneers, is one of the city's major landmarks. Another landmark is the Plaza de la Constitución, the city’s main square since colonial times.With a population of 350,000, it is a major seaport and a commercial and manufacturing center. Veracruz is also close to important petroleum producing regions. Two exposure sites are operated by PCGM in Veracruz. Sites VC1 and VC2 are located on the roofs of the Technical Institute of Veracruz and the University of Veracruzana respectively, about 1 km from the shoreline. The region is rural with limited light industry. Sites VC1 and VC2 are severe marine. The environmental conditions in Veracruz are the most adverse ever experienced by the PI’s and the resulting corrosion rates of carbon steel are huge for natural weather conditions, which are listed in Table 3. In general Veracruz has high rainfall, temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation and wind energy. In particular, wind speed is very high over the whole year, a very unusual condition for México. During the visit the PI’s experienced one of the weekly sand storms which brings mid-afternoon darkness and covers the city with extremely fine white sand. Our published corrosion classification data, Table 4, puts site VC2 above the upper ISO classification of C5, an observation made at several sites in México and other tropical countries of South America. Such data has lead to discussions on the possible introduction of a new ISO Corrosion Classification C6 for regions with such adverse atmospheric conditions. Site VC2 will be used to study the performance of steels exposed to very harsh natural marine environmental conditions (low SOx but high Cl- and time-of-wetness, TOW), not available in the US or indeed many other countries.
ORIZABA: SiteOZ1.
Orizaba is located 100 km south-west of Veracruz and is a rich agricultural region 1230m above sea level, close to Pico de Orizaba, (5,600m) the highest peak in Mexico. It is also an industrial city, (population 120,000), containing textile mills, breweries, sugar refineries and fertilizer maunufacturers. One exposure site OZ1 is located on the roof at the Technological Institute of Orizaba. The altitude and industrial emissions in the region stimulate constant smog conditions. Atmospheric and environmental effects on corrosion, as well as the marine effects of the Gulf of Mexico, are presently unknown. However, severe corrosion of steel power poles and buildings in Orizaba were documented during the visit.
The drive from Orizaba to Coatzacoalcos takes about 5 hours through flat country at sea level. The region is mainly uninhabited yet consists of several major well maintained toll roads. Being close to Chiapas, we were constantly stopped by armed officials who would check our documents and query our reason for travel. Fortunately Professor Carpio was able to explain clearly that we were merely curious rusty scientists.
COATZACOALCOS-MINATITLAN: Sites CZ1, CZ2, MT1.
Coatzacoalcos, (population 130,000), and Minatitlan (population 110,000), are neighboring cities on the very southern coast of the Gulf of México. The shallow Bahia de Campeche holds significant petroleum deposits in this region with large-scale oil production beginning in the late 1970s. Coatzacoalcos is on the coast and is the location of developing industry, in particular two petrochemical refineries. Minatitlan is about 6 km inland at sea level and is a rural city. Three exposure sites are operated by PCGM in this region. Site CZ1 is located on the grounds of the Center for Industrial Technology Training Coatzacoalcos, whereas site CZ2 consists of several small exposure stations located on the nearby grounds of PEMEX Parajetos, one of the largest oil refineries in México which is operated by the Méxican government. PEMEX is located about 4 km from Coatzacoalcos towards Minatitlan, the location of site MT1 on the grounds of the Technology Institute of Minatitlan. Site MT1 is shown about 2 km from the PEMEX refinery. The PI’s noted strong ammonia fumes from PEMEX at site MT1, and were informed it was a regular emission in the area. Sites CZ1 and MT1 could be classified as marine/industrial whereas site CZ2 is classified severe industrial due to very large SOx emissions which place it above the C5 corrosion classification. The Coatzacoalcos-Minatitlan region has very similar weather conditions to Veracruz. However, the concentration of the atmospheric pollutants are reversed, having low chloride and high SOx, compared with Veracruz. Site MT1 is important for investigating the effects of industrial pollution on the urban area of Minatitlan. The PI’s were given permission to enter PEMEX and inspect the plant as well as the site CZ2. It cannot be overemphasized how the acid rain environment of the plant, as a result of its own SOx emissions and high relative humidity, is destroying the refinery. Atmospheric conditions at the plant were so bad that the PI’s, and all personnel working outside, were required to were protective clothing, goggles and respirators. Many photographs of the PEMEX Parajetos refinery accompany the site description below. Corrosion rates are so high inside the plant that repairs are not required. Instead, the corroded areas are bulldozed and rebuilt completely. See for example the chlorination plant, which was closed down and ready for demolition during our visit. Plant downtime costs are enormous at this location. Site CZ2 is important for two reasons. It is able to be used to monitor the effects of high industrial pollution, in the form of year-long acid rain, on steel structures. Scientifically it is a useful site to study the corrosion onset and corrosion product formation due to SOx, a topic of importance which presently lacks data. Additionally coupon exposure data from this site can be compared with data from Veracruz where the chlorides are the dominant pollutant to contribute to the corrosion.
We have concluded from the site visits that exposure of steel and other metal coupons at selected sites can provide corrosion information which will be of scientific importance to the research and industrial communities. In general, weather conditions conducive to corrosion exist over the entire year around the Gulf of México, and with regions of little pollution and others of significant chloride and/or sulfur dioxide pollutants, important research on the contributions of each environment to the longevity of steel structures can be performed in year-long uniform environments which are not available in the US. One goal of the Planning Visit for Corrosion Research in México, was to have access to unique exposure conditions around which specific scientific criteria could be tested in order to improve knowledge of the fundamental corrosion mechanism at the microscopic level. Many of the Méxican sites can be considered to provide accelerated corrosion in natural environments, in comparison to laboratory induced accelerated corrosion, which has shown to produce non-typical corrosion products compared to natural exposure conditions. Coupon exposure at the selected sites will also provide fundamental corrosion data for existing and future structures in México. This data is vital for developing regions in allowing better selection of structural materials, some of which are not presently used to any extent in México. Certainly our collaborators acknowledge that improved and alternate structural steels most likely will be needed in marine regions around the Gulf of México.
Industrial Collaborators: The PI’s and their Méxican collaborators have discussed their research plans with several steel producers in México and the US. In order to plan research which is most productive scientifically and can benefit the economy of México and the US, the following industrial collaborators have been involved in our many research planning meetings. In México, the primary two steel producers, MEXINOX and Altos Hornos, and in the US two steel producers, Bethlehem Steel Corporation and Allegheny Ludlum Corporation have provided information concerning their needs for corrosion testing and data for specific steels in selected environments, and have also agreed to participate in our research by supplying coupons for exposure and analysis. It should be mentioned that the majority of steel used in México is Méxican produced due to reduced costs. However there is much discussion concerning the need to possibly use imported steels of higher quality or at least have the Méxican producers licensed to produce US patented steels as is presently done by Altos Hornos through Bethlehem Steel Corporation. All steel companies involved can gain financially from the sale and use of improved steels in México. The research plan which follows includes details of the involvement of our industrial collaborators.
Collaborative Research Plan: One major goal of the Planning Visit for Corrosion Research in México, was to allow the PI’s, Méxican collaborators and industrial partners, to finalize plans for a new International Corrosion Research Program which was able to perform highly specialized research of scientific, commercial and economic importance through exposure of materials in the unique environments around the Gulf of México. Several different research projects have been formulated and are briefly outlined below. Details of the research will discussed in upcoming research proposals submitted for funding to NSF in the US and CONACyT in México. Each project has a similar layout, that being (i) expose a variety of steel coupons at selected sites for different times between 1 month and at least 3 years, (ii) measure the corrosion rates using accepted standard measurement techniques, (iii) identify the corrosion products, the fraction of each and the layering and spacial location of each oxide using non-destructive spectroscopic techniques, and (iv) correlate the data with environmental and other exposure conditions to determine how the atmospheric parameters control the corrosion mechanism by forming protective or non-protective layers or perhaps by degrading the coatings applied to the materials prior to exposure. Our Méxican collaborators will also measure the Corrosion Classification for each site we use for coupon exposure. This will allow a new data-base and corrosion map of eastern México to be developed for use by steel producers and users in regions surrounding the Gulf of México. So far this has only been done for 4 cities in the western region of México. The research plans involve basic coupon corrosion analysis at the four laboratories in México, and spectroscopic analysis of the corrosion products at Old Dominion University. At least two graduate students, one from México and one from ODU, will be involved in each major project and, along with the senior scientific personnel, will receive training in the specialty areas, (course work and instrumentation), offered at each collaborating institute. The projects of greatest international scientific impact, (fundamental research), and of commercial importance to México and the US, (industrial application), are summarized below.
Research Projects
Performance of High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels in México.
High-Strength Low-Alloy (HSLA) steels are commonly used in many parts of the world for bridge construction as well as power poles and roadside guiderails. It is often known as Weathering Steel because it is initially un-coated and weathers to form a rust layer due to atmospheric exposure once the structure is built. The rust layer acts to protect the steel from further corrosion, a procedure which unfortunately takes about 9 years. It is believed that regular wet-dry cycles are required to form an adherent protective layer. The composition of the protective layer and the mechanism by which specific nano-phase oxides form on the steel are only beginning to be understood as a result of recent research by the PI’s on US exposed Weathering Steels. HSLA steels contain about 3% alloying elements and are more expensive than carbon-steel. Therefore they have not been used or produced in México. However there is much discussion in México on the need to use these more corrosion resistant steels if research shows they are able to perform in the Méxican environments. Painted steels are not a desirable alternative at the present time since lead-based paints are still widely used in México. The research collaborators have formulated their initial research project on the study of the development of the protective corrosion layer and the performance of several Weathering Steels at four sites in México, CP2, CP3, ME1 and PG1. The two sites at Campeche and the one at Mérida will allow performance comparisons of the steels in high and medium and low chloride environments having regular wet-dry cycling. The exposures at Progreso will be unique in allowing monitoring of the development of the corrosion in a high chloride environment having very little wet-dry cycling. The HLSA steels will be provided by Bethlehem Steel Corporation and have already been prepared for the PI’s to be exposed simultaneously with the new ASTM exposure program to begin in the US early in 2000. The steels include commonly used Type A588 as well as the recently produced very high strength structural steel HPS 100W. Carbon steels as well as aluminum, copper and zinc produced by Altos Hornos and Bethlehem Steel, will also be exposed at the 4 sites for purpose of a calibration and site corrosivity determination required by our Méxican collaborators. Coupons will be exposed for 5 intervals between 1 and 36 months, subjected to mass loss measurements and analyzed by Mössbauer spectroscopy, Micro-Raman and Infra-Red spectrometry to determine oxide composition and location and Electron-Probe Micro-Analysis to determine the elemental composition of impurities in the oxide layers. Details of the spectroscopic analysis and the information obtained are provided on our Home Page at . The spectroscopic analysis will provide fundamental scientific information on the formation and transformation of the initial corrosion products that form on HSLA steels. These will be compared with our previous findings for HSLA steels exposed for 16 years in the US as well as with the new US ASTM exposure program. It is expected that the Méxican data will enhance our understanding of the role of the alloying elements in protecting the steel and lead to further improvements in the steels which will allow protective layer formation in significantly reduced times of about 12 months.
Carbon and structural steel exposure in adverse marine and industrial environments.
The sites at Veracruz, Coatzacoalcos and Minatitlan will be used to expose carbon steels produced in México and the US as well as HSLA steels to atmospheric conditions not available at the US exposure sites. The environmental conditions discussed in the above section on exposure sites results in each site exceeding the most corrosive C5 Corrosion Classification specified by ISO. In comparison, one of the most adverse marine exposure sites in the US, KB25, the 25 m lot at Kure Beach, NC, operated by the LaQue Corrosion Services, is classified as C5 and has corrosion rates about 50% of those measured in our preliminary research at Coatzacoalcos, refer Table 4. The high corrosivity at each Méxican site is due to different pollutants, chlorides at Veracruz, VC2 and sulfur dioxide emissions at Coatzacoalcos, CZ2. The high time-of-wetness at each site results in aggressive corrosion due to the pollutants. Of scientific importance is an improved understanding of the initial corrosion rates and oxides formed due to each type of pollutant, a topic which has received only limited attention, worldwide. It is believed that different oxides form in Cl- and S2- environments and that critical pollutant levels are needed for the formations. Investigation of these phenomena is necessary for correct selection of steels and further improvement in their chemistry for applications in marine and industrial or acid-rain environments.
Marine performance of Stainless Steels.
The Corrosion Research Group at CINVESTAV-IPN in Mérida, has undertaken basic corrosion studies on stainless steels exposed along the Caribbean coastline. In this region of aggressive marine environments, withstanding the added expense, there has been a wide acceptance of Méxican produced stainless steel for many structural applications in order to increase serviceable lifetime. However limited scientific data has been obtained along the Caribbean for stainless steels which have generally low acceptance for marine applications in the US. Recently a new high Molybdenum Stainless Steel, Type Al-6XN, produced by Allegheny-Ludlum Corporation for use in combined marine and industrial environments has been available. It has had limited exposure testing in the US and the adverse marine conditions along the Caribbean coastline would allow its performance to be evaluated with the expectation of increased sales of the US steel or the possible licensing to produce the steel through MEXINOX, the present producers of stainless steel in México. A fundamental comparison of the corrosion performance of Méxican and US produced stainless steels would be made at the Caribbean exposure sites. Scientifically very little research has been performed on the corrosion of stainless steels from the microscopic aspect of environmental interactions at the steel surface and the contributions of the high fraction of alloying elements to the corrosion resistance and formation of the passive film and other corrosion products. Very little literature exists on the effects of the environmental pollutants on passive film breakdown and subsequent failure of the stainless steels in marine and industrial environments. Therefore spectroscopic and optical analysis of stainless steels surfaces exposed under the adverse marine condition in México would provide important initial information on the corrosion mechanism in the high alloy steels.
In summary, several new research projects have been proposed and many still remain to be completely formulated as a result of our Méxican visit. For example, corrosion problems on the oil rigs in the Gulf of México, off the coast of Ciudad Del Carmen, range from structural damage in the splash zone to the corrosion in the flame stacks and air inlet systems, and corrosion of the sheet steel housing equipment used on the rigs. Future research will be proposed in collaboration with the oil industry who face significant maintenance costs to keep the oil-rigs operational. The formation of the research collaboration with México has resulted in a strong interdisciplinary group of specialists who are keen researchers and instructors with a common goal and who enjoy working together for the advancement of corrosion research and the training of a future generation corrosion scientists an engineers.
Research Training and Development.
The research training and development involved in the Planning Visit for Corrosion Research in México is divided into two sections, (i) that proposed in the new Collaborative Research Plan discussed in the last section and (ii) that already undertaken through the preliminary unfunded research performed by the PI’s as a result of the Planning Visit.
The Corrosion Research Plan developed with our Méxican collaborators includes 6 graduate students, 3 from ODU and 3 from México, under the supervision of the senior researchers at ODU and the partner and collaborating organizations. Students will be from the disciplines of Materials Science, Physics, Mechanical Engineering or Chemistry depending on their interests and involvement in the various research projects. Each project will incorporate 2 students who will travel to the different research laboratories and exposure sites to complete their training and research. At each institute, the students will register for courses in the specialty of the host researcher and the credit will transfer to the student’s home university. Research training on the instrumentation at each laboratory will also be undertaken by the students and some of the senior researchers in order for the students to complete each segment of their analysis. Students will spend about one semester in México and one semester at ODU for research training. All students will be required to take the appropriate foreign language course, Spanish or English, at one of the universities. In addition to graduate student training, approximately 12 technical personnel are involved in exposure site management, maintenance and environmental monitoring. Most have demonstrated interest in the planned research and will be trained by the collaborating researchers in fundamental corrosion measurements using ISO standards, from coupon preparation, exposure, cleaning and weighing. They will be trained to determine the corrosion classification of their particular site from both atmospheric data they collect and from exposure the standard metallic coupons, steel, aluminum, copper and zinc. This technician training program is aimed at promoting higher quality and better maintained exposure sites by involving the technical managers directly with the ongoing research.
Two areas of preliminary research have already been completed as a result of the visit to México and the newly formed collaboration with PCGM. A total of 5 students have been involved in projects which have determined the corrosivity index of several of the Méxican sites, and investigated the corrosion rates and different corrosion products which form on carbon steel exposed in the rural/marine and severe marine sites CP2 and CP3 respectively in Campeche. Two Méxican graduate students, Tezozomoc Perez and Javier Reyes have been involved in correlating the environmental parameters at each site with the mass loss data from the carbon steel coupons. At ODU, Sei Jin Oh identified and mapped the corrosion products on coupons exposed at each site for less than 12 months in order to investigate if high and low chloride concentrations effect the type of oxides which form. This work was included as one section of his Ph.D. Dissertation which was successfully defended in December 1997. More recently, another one of Dr. Cook’s graduate students, Rama Balasubramanian, began to investigate the initial corrosion products that form on carbon steels exposed in Campeche for less than 2 years. Her research is continuing at the present time to understand the transformation of the oxides to more stable forms in different environments. Finally, in 1998, one undergraduate student, Jennifer Gurdak, produced and analyzed one of the important stable oxides commonly formed during corrosion, as a part of her Senior Thesis research requirement in Physics at ODU. Several publications, (see sections on Journal Publications and Other One-Time Publications), and presentations at international meetings, (see Project Activities) have resulted from the work of the 5 students. For each of the three ODU students, the Méxican collaboration resulting from the NSF project offered them a new international research opportunity which permitted them to be trained on the instrumentation at ODU and to become involved in corrosion research.
Several project activities have aimed at communicating with members of the community. This Home Page of the Condensed Matter and Materials Physics (CMMP) research group includes extensive discussion, photographs and data pertaining to the Visit to México. The content includes cultural, scientific and corrosion information and is suitable for scientific and non-scientific reading. Direct communication concerning our Méxican corrosion activities has been made with different groups of the local community in the Tidewater area as well as Virginia. As a part of the student recruitment program at ODU, the PI’s visit local high schools to discuss with year 11-12 students and their science teachers, educational and research opportunities at ODU. One part of our discussion includes the importance of corrosion research and advancements therein. The Technical Applications Center in the College of Engineering at ODU, (www.tac.odu.edu/ ), in conjunction with the Hampton Roads Technology Council organize an annual 2 day Technology Fair which is attended by industrial management and researchers from a variety of companies across the US. Faculty from ODU make 30 minute presentations to attendees concerning the technological and applied aspects of their research. The PI’s present the development of corrosion research techniques and their involvement with US and Méxican corrosion problems, in order to increase awareness of our activities and to possibly foster new industrial collaborations in our research area. Finally, the Physics Departments Graduate Brochure for recruitment includes information on the PI’s research interests and the CMMP research group and its involvement in corrosion research in México and the US.
Research Contributions within Discipline
The Planning Visit for Corrosion Research in México has and will continue to contribute to research and education in Civil, Mechanical and Structural Engineering through the development of knowledge of the corrosion properties of structural steels in harsh marine and industrial environments. One major contribution to engineering is the introduction of high resolution, non-destructive spectroscopic techniques, commonly used in the sciences, to investigate the onset and development of corrosion in real-life exposure conditions. This provides significant additional information beyond that normally obtained from the more standard corrosion monitoring methods used by engineers and industry. Therefore the project activities will also contribute to the fundamental knowledge of corrosion onset through identification and mapping of the formation and transformation of the corrosion products on steels commonly used for bridges and buildings. Incorporation of this data with the bulk corrosion measurements and environmental exposure conditions, will provide a base of knowledge to permit selection of the most suitable structural steels for the selected location, in the US, México and elsewhere. A further contribution of the planned research will be the improved understanding of the corrosion due to alloying elements and to use this knowledge to improve and develop new structural steels with increased surface corrosion resistance. This has been one effort of the preliminary research performed so far. Student training in cross-disciplinary topics will provide more diverse researchers and instructors. Four engineering and science students have been, and more will continue to be, trained on corrosion theory and instrumentation required to improve the technology and understanding of atmospheric corrosion.
Research Contributions to Other Disciplines
Due to its interdisciplinary makeup, the planned research of the new International Corrosion Research Program is expected to contribute significantly to knowledge in materials science, physics and chemistry. Contributions in the environmental sciences have been made through the initial monitoring of the atmospheric pollutants in the industrial and marine areas. The data has provided evidence of an extremely high corrosion index in several regions of industrial growth and support the need for improved corrosion classifications originally designated by the International Standards Organization. The environmental data and preliminary corrosion data from the Gulf of México has also provided information to the Méxican funding agency, CONACyT, in its mission to promote research on the corrosion problems in developing regions around the Gulf.
Scientific contributions have been made in the disciplines of Materials Science, Physics and Chemistry, through the application of the in-situ, non-destructive spectroscopic analyses to study the corrosion products. This has resulted in preparation and detailed study of high purity iron oxide samples using all the available instrumentation, and has allowed detailed comparison of the data from the same individual oxides, recorded using 5 different spectroscopic techniques, to be performed for the first time. A better understanding of the effects of particle size and chemical impurity on the crystal and magnetic properties of the iron oxides now exists, and this in turn will result in improved steel chemistry and production of more corrosion resistant steels.
Contributions to Education and Human Resources Development
The project has contributed to Human Resources Development in two ways. The planned corrosion research by the PI’s and their Méxican collaborators will incorporate six graduate students three from México and three from ODU. The students will be trained at each of the collaborating laboratories. Additionally, the technical personnel at each exposure site will receive basic corrosion training as described in the section above on Activities and Findings. Undergraduate students from ODU will be involved through the Senior Thesis course.
The preliminary research performed with the Campeche group has involved four graduate students. Tezozomoc Perez and Javier Reyes have been studying the mass loss and environmental parameters respectively related to the carbon steel samples exposed at the three Campeche sites. At ODU, Sei Jin Oh recently completed studies of the corrosion effects of chloride concentration on carbon steel exposed for less than 12 months at the severe marine and near marine sites in Campeche. This research formed part of his dissertation on the environmental contributions to corrosion of carbon and weathering steels in the US and México. Rama Balasubramanian recently began the investigation of initial oxides formed, and their possible transformation, on carbon steels exposed for less than two years at Campeche. We have planned for her to complete her dissertation following the short term exposure of the alloyed steels as described in project I of the Collaborative Research Plan outlined above. At ODU, the student involvement has incorporated integration of research and course work in corrosion, materials science and instrumental spectroscopy. It is expected that the future funding of one project from the research plan will allow the Méxican students and collaborating researchers to attend ODU for 6 months for instruction and training on spectroscopic analysis of corroded steels. One PI, Dr. Cook, has recently completed the 5 day course Electrochemical Techniques in Corrosion Engineering at the University of Virginia and is incorporating the theory and some experiments into the Undergraduate Senior Physics Laboratory and Materials Science program at ODU. The laboratory already instructs students on the spectroscopic techniques, which comprise a major portion of the NSF-DUE project DUE-9750545, used for our corrosion research. The new experiments are expected to help attract science and engineering students into corrosion research at ODU and be trained for the research planned in this project.
Human resource development has also included the formation of the corrosion home page at in order to communicate with the public on particulars of this project and our research, and includes extensive discussion, photographs and data pertaining to the Visit to México.
Contributions to Resources for Science and Technology
The project has contributed positively to Science and Technology in several ways. The formation of the International Corrosion Research Program has brought together researchers from ODU and four institutes in México. The investigators have broad educational and research backgrounds and combine to form a highly experienced multi-disciplinary research group. The collaboration has allowed a diverse range of research projects to be planned and completed at the preliminary, unfunded level. This includes corrosion related topics from environmental pollution monitoring and corrosivity mapping in the Gulf of México, to standard investigations of corrosion and specialized identification of corrosion products on steels exposed in some extremely harsh environments. The research program is expanding with new collaborations in Brazil, Venezuela, Argentina, Panama, Colombia, Japan and Spain. The need for increased and improved corrosion research in Latin American countries is obvious from the new collaborations.
The involvement of industrial collaborators from México and the US with the PI’s indicates the potential for the planned research to benefit the steel companies through improved products and increased sales. They have already gained from our preliminary environmental studies and determination of the corrosivity index of several regions in México. However our main contribution will be through our planned research and the evaluation of their steels at selected Méxican sites.
Contributions Beyond Science and Engineering
The planned corrosion research will contribute economically to México and the US through increased sales of steel to México and the development of improved corrosion resistant structural steels, possibly tailored to specific marine and industrial conditions. The research will improve the commercial selection procedures for steels through increased knowledge of steel performance in different environments. The consequences are increased longevity of bridges and buildings and improved economy and standard of living. There is hope that, through our monitoring of industrial pollutants around the Gulf of México, some of the emission regulations in Mexico will be improved.
Presentations and Publications
Papers Presented at Professional Meetings.
The research activities include papers presented at conferences by the PI’s, collaborators and students involved in the research collaboration. Several are based on the atmospheric data the PI’s collected while in México and several are related to the results of the preliminary research we have performed with PCGM. Abstracts for the papers listed below are linked.
Conference Abstracts
Identification of the Atmospheric Corrosion Products on Steels Exposed in the Gulf of Mexico and the United States, A.C. Van Orden and D.C. Cook. Presented at the International Materials Research Congress. Cancun, Mexico, September 1-5, 1996. Conference Proceedings p. 79.
Atmospheric Corrosion in México, D.C. Cook, A.C. Van Orden, J.J. Carpio and S.J. Oh. Presented at the 75th Annual Meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science, Blacksburg, VA, May 20-23,1997, Virginia Journal of Science vol. 48, No. 2, p.132.
Atmospheric Corrosion of Steels in Marine Environments in México and the United States, A.C. Van Orden, D.C. Cook and J.J. Carpio, Invited paper presented at the International Materials Research Congress: Cancun’97, Cancun, México, 1-4 September, 1997.
Atmospheric Corrosion in the Gulf of México, D.C. Cook, A.C. Van Orden, J.J. Carpio and S.J. Oh. Invited paper presented at the International Conference on the Applications of the Mössbauer Effect, ICAME’97, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 14-20 September, 1997. Paper #TH.T3.OA.10.
Corrosion Product Formation from Short-term Atmospheric Exposure of Steel, R. Balasubramanian and D.C. Cook. Presented at the 76th Annual Meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science, Fairfax, VA, May 27-29,1998. Virginia Journal of Science vol. 49, No. 2, p.87.
Formation of Goethite on Corroded Steel, J. Gurdak and D.C. Cook. Presented at the 76th Annual Meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science, Fairfax, VA, May 27-29,1998. Virginia Journal of Science vol. 49, No. 2, p.89.
Atmospheric Corrosion of Carbon Steel Resulting From Short Term Exposures, R. Balasubramanian, D.C. Cook, T. Perez and J. Rayes. Presented at the 3rd NACE Latin American Region Corrosion Congress, Cancun, México, August 30 - September 4, 1998. Paper#5, Symp9.
Study of The Initial Corrosion Products Formed on Carbon Steel Exposed Along The Gulf of México, Rama Balasubramanian, D.C. Cook, T. Perez and J. Reyes. Paper presented at the 6th Latin American Conference on Applications of the Mössbauer Effect, Cartagena de Indias, Columbia, September 13-19, 1998. Paper A33-T5-P.
Study of Short-term Atmospheric Corrosion of Carbon Steel, Rama Balasubramanian, D.C. Cook, T.Perez and J.Reyes. Presented at the 77th Annual Meeting of the Virginia Academy of Science, Norfolk, VA, May 25-27,1999. Virginia Journal of Science vol. 50 No. 2.
Journal Publications:
Atmospheric corrosion in the Gulf of México. D.C. Cook, A.C. Van Orden, J. J. Carpio and S.J. Oh, Hyperfine Interactions, vol 113, (1998), p. 319.
Study of the initial corrosion
products formed on carbon steel exposed along the Gulf of México.
R. Balasubramanian, D.C. Cook, T. Perez and J. Reyes. Accepted for publica
